Rise and fall of iron age

Iron Age is the period generally occurring after the Bronze Age marked by prevalent use of iron. The early period of Iron Age is characterized by the use of iron tools which is very small and sophisticated tools. Iron Age as an archaeological term indicates the condition as to civilization and culture of the people using iron as the material for cutting tools and weapons. In Tanzania the early iron site was discovered at Buhaya dated between 500 - 200 BC (Schmidt 1985; Mapunda 1995:76), but discoveries made in other sites such like Mpiji, Kilwa, Nkese, Mkiu after that earliest sites in intercustrine region. Also Chami (1925) the early iron working communities of Tanzania knew how to smelt iron and make tools and weapons probably the middle of the first millennium be on wards, the maker of technology known as Homo sapiens sapiens. One of the major challenges in archaeology of Iron Age in Africa particularly in Tanzania was absence of well dated and well documented evidence for early Iron Age technology. This absence of well documented period and origin lead to emergence of two schools of thought about origin of iron technology in Africa particularly in Tanzania. One believes in external origin and second one believes in local intervention.

According to external origin school of thought iron technology was imported into Sub Saharan Africa from Eastern Mediterranean. Different routes have been proposed from Eastern Mediterranean; 1.to the Carthage and from there across the Sahara to West Africa; 2.to Meroe and from there to West and East Africa; 3.to Aksum and from there to East Africa; 4. Direct maritime route from Eastern Mediterranean to East Africa. These scholars based on diffusion theory of iron technology and iron working culture, but no archaeological evidences has been found so far supporting any of these various route or whole external origin model (Mapunda 1995:77).

The local intervention school of thought refutes the external origin of iron making culture arguing that there are no archaeological evidences for external sources. As (Andah 1979; Mapunda: 1995:77) argued that most information criteria to determine the diffusion of iron technology in space would be similar between the donor and recipient technology. The iron working of Sub Saharan does not seem to have affinity with that of eastern Mediterranean. In these words the technology of Kagera region and possibly Taruga is so distinctive from that of Eastern Mediterranean. Most reasonable hypothesis for the origin this preheated technology is an independent invention in Africa (Schmidt 1985; Mapunda 1995:79). Also this independent invention can be verified by distribution of indigenous iron working culture among the indigenous communities of Tanzania distracted from Rugumoro spread to other part and associated with Bantu migration package.

The question of the acquisition of iron metallurgy implies temporal and spatial linearity- characteristics which make it logical to begin discussion from where the oldest evidence is located. The most popular assumption was that the technology was brought into the Intelacustrine region by Bantu speaking people (Ehret 1972; Mapunda 1995). In explaining the iron metallurgy in Intelacustrine region (Hall 1987) use the Iron Age cultural package of Bantu speaking people includes domestication (farming and animal husbandry), centralized political organization, early iron age ceramics and iron working. As de Marete observe “the Idea of Linking Dimple based Pottery” was associated by Bantu migration. Owen had found old potsherds at Urewe to the East of Lake Victoria with a shape of dimple based; Hiernaux also noted that the pottery appeared abruptly which lead him to believe that most have brought together with iron by that lives for a period with the Late Stone Age people. The name dimple based was late changed to Urewe Ware which characterized by thick, beveled rims which are often grooved (Mapunda 1995:84- 90). It is clearly shown that the pottery went together with the iron technology and the technology started in Northern part of Tanzania (Kagera) around 500- 200 BC, then to Lelesu in Dodoma, Pare, Fipa to mention a few, finally spread to different part of Tanzania and Africa at large.

 Early evidences of iron smelting in Tanzania came from Intelacustrine region where various metallurgical materials were discovered including furnace, tuyeres, slag, wood charcoal, iron ore and iron artifacts (Mapunda 1995:82), Nkese in Western Usambara mountains in Northern Eastern Tanzania, a furnace, slag and tuyere fragments were found dating and between first and four centuries AD (Schmidt 1985; Mapunda 1995:83), also at Mkou South of Dar- Es- Salaam were Slag and Tuyere fragment found and dating between first and four centuries AD (Chami 1988), at Limbo site on the Kisarawe Coast of Tanzania a trench measuring 2x1M, excavated to the depth of 3m yielded about 113.96 kg of slag (Chami 1986:82). Other sites on the coast is Kwale site were iron arrow head, same slag and piece of tuyere were recovered. Also excavation by Chittiks at Kilwa (1974), Manda (1984) and Hortons at Shanga (1984) yield same slag and many iron objects comprise knives, arrows head, hooks, wire wound fibre core, ring and bangles in Manda furnaces have been found. Others sites which have this kind of technology but lacked archaeological evidence were Fipa in Southern Tanzania, Pare in Northern Eastern Tanzania, Kinga, Bena and Pangwa in southern Tanzania just mention few.

The iron technology among the indigenous Tanzania communities rise independently from one community to another in different time and space, this was due to the following;

Environments; the various in availability of environment resources determine the technique development between one community to another. Example finding by Mapunda 1995:82 indicate that the inhabitant of Intelacustrine region, using locally available materials such as hemitate, limonate ore, refractory clay, wood and charcoal were able to manufacture their own Carbon steel beginning in the middle of the first Millenium BC. Also direct historical testimony iron workers in the area (Ikamba) indicates that they favored several species of the trees and moved their smelting locations periodically to save labor cost in transporting fuels, in other words they followed the availability of certain forest resources in the environment (Schmidt 1997:419) also among Nyiha, Pare, Fipa, Bena, Pangwa and Haya the availability of environment resources trigged to the rise of iron technology.

Technology; the most important observation on the evolution of iron technology due to technological development among the various Tanzanian communities. Example in the North Western Tanzania the technological significance of placement of clay tuyeres inside the iron smelting furnaces, systematically observation of iron smelting in an experimental and ethnological context has shown that when a clay tuyeres, the air blast passing through the clay pipes in the preheated that air entering the blast zone is heated to 400 -600 ‘c above the ambitient air temperature. The result the flame temperature that significantly beyond the range achievable, the archaeological evidence from North Western Tanzania suggest that preheating technology had developed in Tanzania new two Millennium BP. Also there is Barongo technology in Western lake Victoria among Barongo used in iron smelting, Nyiha used furnaces in smelting iron and Katukutu or Mallungu technology among Fipa in Southern Tanzania employed tall, nature, draft, slag and tapping furnaces. Apart from the factor which lead to the rise of iron technology, also there are factors leads to the development of iron technology among Tanzania indigenous communities as follows;

Cultural factors; among the primary factors for the development of iron technology in Tanzania show by study done at Njombe by Lyaya (2012) show that the iron workers (Bena) were too selective in the species used to smelt those iron, this choice were based on techniques as well as cultural factors, same of the species used by the iron workers in Tanzania including Njombe are Burkea Africana, used by Bena, Mkufwa used by Bena and Fipa just mention few. Because such species cross various iron working zone their selection it can be argued, was more technical quality such as hard wood and density. Under this bases iron smelting in Tanzania was attributed by particular species.                                

Hunting; hunting for wild animals is indicated by the finding of iron arrow heads at the Mpiji site and the bones of the animals compose the dik dik, duiker, bush burk and bovid and various bird at Shanga (Chami 1994:45). This shows that the hunting among the coastal communities in Tanzania was influenced by iron technology due to evidence at Mpiji site yielded a lot of bones providing evidence of the wide range of hunted animals by using iron tools impliments.

Agriculture; the early Tanzania communities were practice agriculture activities, the adoption of iron technology offered them great possibility of expanding by exploiting virgin land, clearing of wood land. This proved by the earliest iron using sites in Tanzania have been found in Intelacustrine region. Studies of the iron smelting shown that intensive and sophisticated technology was known that lead to the production of still, such iron smelting technology resulted to concentration of population overexploitation of natural environment (forest) for agriculture development in the region. Also a study conducted at Limbo site at Kisarawe Coast of Tanzania has shown that the intensive smelting took place at the beginning of our era. Study by Chami 1995:43 shows that the intensive production has been attributed to an effort to cope with a demand for the tools required for clearing coastal woodland for agriculture.

Trade; the well documented early iron site in Tanzania is located at the Uvinza brine spring along the lower Malagarasi which flow into Lake Tanganyika from the East. The salt of Uvinza was described by explorer Richard Burton in 1858 as far superior to that from other sources being traded throughout the heart of Africa supplying to the land and joining both Tanganyika and Nyasa Land. The trade paid for their purchase with iron weapons, spears, swords, hatchets made especially for trade (Oliver etal., 1975:91). Among the Tanzania communities iron became the important trade items during pre colonial era example at km2 and km3 and Kaija shrine at the Rugumora were sites which is dated to middle of the first Millennium BC. A number of radiocarbon date showed that the area linked production and Buhaya societies found in that area trade with other societies depending on iron as major trade item. As far as iron indigenous technology is concerned to have great development among Tanzania communities, this technology also declined at the late of 20^th century due to the following;

Colonialism; the technology began to collapse in most places during the first quarter of the 20^th century due to greater part to competition from relatively cheap European metal ware and scrape iron. The availability of both classes of iron increased tremendously following the commencement of colonialism. Same time the colonial government deliberately surpressed the indigenous technology to protect a market for the European made products (Mapunda 1995:96) in the few places were Europeans influence were minimal (main due to the remoteness) indigenous iron production continued until very recently. Example Fipa of South Western Tanzania, Bakongo iron smelters of North Western Tanzania continued until the early 1950’s  (Wright 1982; Mapunda 1995:96) Nyiha from Mbozi Mbeya stopped making iron by the beginning of the 20^th century primary because of competition with mass produced goods and also possibly because of the government repression (Mapunda 1995:100).

Conclusively; the rise and development of iron technology among indigenous communities of Tanzania coincided with other changes in the societies including different agricultural practices, religion beliefs, artistic style, population growth and formation of strong centralized system which later lead to the formation of state organization. The iron technology stands to explain the development of technology in Africa and Tanzania in particular and their production was very harmony to environment, therefore the association of indigenous iron working in Africa with environmental degradation was nothing rather as colonial tool for administration, hence the iron technology in Tanzania shows how Tanzania societies changed over time and space before the introduction of colonial system.