Discuss the contention; Historians, and archaeologists are siblings

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Archaeology is the scientific study of human cultural and social past whose goal is to narrate the sequence story of the past and explain the events that composed it (Willy and Sabliff1980).It is a discipline that studies human culture through cultural phenomena. However ,not all cultural remains are regarded as cultural phenomena including actions like praying,dancing,and singing. Generally archaeology can be defined as the scientific study of past human societies primarily through the recovering and analysis of material culture and environmental data left behind by them.History is a discipline that focuses on the study of past human events. However not all past events are regarded as history.The selection of the study of historical events depends on the historian himself ,his background, the political and socio- economic environment in which he lives, the message he wants to deliver to his audience and the lesson he wants them to learn(Tarimo; 2004)

There has been a hot debate recently of whether these two disciplines of study can be considered siblings or not. From certain perspectives Archaeology and History are closely related.However, the same disciplines show wide variations from other angle of consideration. This riddle can be unlocked by examining the similarities, relations and differences between the two .The following are similarities and relationships between Archaeology and History:

Both archaeology and History seek knowledge of the humanpast. The former achieve that through various methods which are also used in History like written documents. These are historical accounts that provide evidence of the human past events.They generally, includebooks, journals, monographs, magazines, newspapers and dissertations.Another mutual method is oral tradition. This is the information about the past given out by the word of mouth. This relationship resulted to the coinage of the so called Historical archaeology. This is an internationaldiscipline concerned with studying the past using physical evidence in conjunction with other types of historical sources such as documents, maps, illustrations, photographs, and oral history. This explanation is per N.S.W Heritage office. They add that historical archaeology focuses on objects used by people in the past and the places they lived and worked (N.S,W Heritage office1998:1).

Another major relationship is on how both disciplines complement each other. In the name of studying the past there are times where archaeology requires preliminary information from history. Also history sometimes come to be surprised at recent archaeological findings which fill historical gaps.The historian of pre nineteenth century Africa cannot get far without the aid of archaeology .Archaeology is there to keep history up to date(Jan,Vansina.1995) .This is evident in the following evidences. Specific archaeological findings expand existing historical reconstructions. They require a re-evaluation of such reconstruction or they allow reconstructions to be made for periods for which there was hitherto insufficient evidence .For example, in western part of the western Sudan new findings concerning the long 1^st millennium A.D are leading to a complete re-evaluation of the previously accepted historical reconstruction for that .Until recently very little was known about the 1^st three quarter of the period ,apart from the gradual growth of walled town at Jenne-Jeno. Recently that situation has changed dramatically. First, Jan Vansina narrates, there was the discovery of an impressive necropolis at Asindasikka(Bura) in Niger, which was in use at sometimes between 200 and 1000A.D.This site contained some 400 large figurative ceramics.It is evident that the society which used this necropolis was complex and rich.All of this comes as a total surprise to the historian.(Jan Vansina;1995).Another good example comes from the historical work by Thomas Jefferson ‘’Third president of USA” who through history became one of the earliest archaeologists in America. He in 1781 indulged at monticello, Virginia and wrote a historical book called ‘’Notes on the state of Virginia’’.The book narrated about laws, money, animals, vegetable, andminerals. Buthe wondered about their origins. He chose an earth-work near the Rivanna River a small mound that was repository of the dead.In 1784 his slave dug a perpendicular trench through human the tumulus.He recorded layers of human bones at different depths, lying in complete confusion. Jefferson was the first scientist to identify the mound builders as the Native Americans(Charles E and Brian M.Fagan1995).

This is how archaeology and history relate to each other .Unfortunately their differences seem to be immense and noticeable . This is because archaeology is considered both as a science as well as humanity. The following are the differences between archaeology and history;

Archaeology is considered to more scientific than humanistic .This is because the methods used follow scientific procedures like any other scientific field .Historical records, for example, normally make statements, offeropinions, passjudgment (even if those statements and judgments themselves need to be interpreted (Collin Reinfrew&PaulBahn, 2008:13).But, according to Paul Bahn the objects that archaeologists discover on the other hand, tell us nothing directly in themselves. It is we today who have to make sense of these things. In this respect the practice of archaeology is rather like that of the scientist .The scientist collect data (evidence),conducts experiments, formulate a hypothesis (proposition to account for the data),tests hypothesis against more data,and then in conclusion devices a model (a description that seems best to summarize the pattern observed in the data(Colin Reinfrew&Paul Bahn ibid).Archaeology uses methods like written documents,oral history and surveying.Some scholars like Jim Grant,Sam Gorin,and Neil Fleming have proposed four methods of locating archaeological sites that include Desktop study,surface survey,geophysical or geochemical survey and Aerial survey(Jim Grant etal p.4;2008).The physical evidence or cultural phenomenon studied by archaeologists are of three forms the first is artifacts which include portable objects made or modified by humans.For example stone tools, pottery,metal implements,and bone points.The second is Ecofacts or Biofacts and this entail non artifactual material remains not directly created or modified by humans . For example remnants of humans, animals and plant species. The last is features which are non-portable structures created or modified by humans’ .For example buildings, pits, pot holes, and cemeteries.

Another difference bases on scope or coverage.History is generally concerned with human history of the period from the beginning of written records(3000 B.C to Present).Unlike history ,archaeology covers the period from the beginning of human culture (2.5million years ago to present). It is dueto this reason archaeology is termed as the primary source for 99% of the information about human history.This is evidenced in the new excavations that discover informationof many million years ago. According to Henry Koerper and Nancy A.Whitney,HerroldPlante found the first astragalus from the surface of ORA-83.This artifact has been donated to the mission San Juan Capistrano Museum. PauLLangen Walter identified this specimen as an element of the hind limb of black tailed deer (odocoileushemionus).It weighs 17 grams and the length is 39.2mm.The width measures 26.3mm and maximum height is 24.8mm.There is evidence that piece received some heat treatment, possiblyto harden the bone (HenryC.Koerper&NancyA.Whitney1999:73).

The focus of both disciplines defines their divergence .History focuses on literate and richest community.In other words it is influenced by high and middle classes that include kings, queens, priests and prominentscholars. But archaeology is less bias. In archaeology we are certainly interested in having clear picture of how people lived, and how they exploited their environments. But we also seek to understand why they lived that way, why they had such patterns of behavior and how their life ways and material culture came to take the form theydid(Colin Reinfrew&PaulBahn2008:17).It is a tendency in every human cultural society to have manners of eating, makingthings, discard trash and ultimately dying and thus every one contributes to archaeological record. A good example is on the recent excavation done in Africa. According to Brian M,Fagan, Africa occupies a unique place in the world pre-history. Its archaeological sequence is of unappalled length for the reason that it was certainly or almost in this continent that hominides and their distinctive behavior first evolved. According to him discoveriesrelating to the prior periods of human activity have been done in eastern Africa coveringareas of Ethiopia, South of Tanzania, and on South of Africa. He gives an example that microlithic industries were the work of people who were fully modern in the anatomical sense and they are known as Homosapienssapiens. It is therefore important that the oldest known fossils generally accepted as being of this type come from sites in SouthAfrica, where they seem to date to about 100,000 years ago. These are believed to be the most ancient remains of fully modern people anywhere in the world, and they support genetic evidence that it may have been in sub-Saharan Africa that Homosapiens sapiens first developed (Brian M.Fagan 1996:12).

Another difference lies on expensivity.Archaeology is relatively more expensive compared to history.This comprises aspects of methodologies and preservation measures.Archaeology uses methods like surveying with sampling strategies which is not only costful but also time consuming.The tools used also are expensive like the probes ,trowel,compass direction,GPS,magnetometer ,Dustpan sample bags,First aid kit,Photo board,aluminum oil and Telescope. Apart from tools and methodologies, archaeological findings need greater care on their preservation .According to Donny.LHamilton, artifacts preservation is one of the most important consideration when planning or implementing any action that will result in recovery of material from a marine archaeological site.It is the responsibility of the excavator or salver to see that the material recovered is properly conserved.He adds that the excavation period is time consuming and expensive often costing more than the original excavation (Donny L.Hamilton,1997:1).However without conservation measures most artifacts are bound to perish and alter important historical data.For example organic materials like leather,wood,textile,rope,plant remains and glass objects are vulnerable.Donny.L,Hamilton suggests some conservation ethics like respect for the integrityof objects,competence and facilities,single standard,suitability of treatment,principle of reversibility, limitations on aesthetics reintegration ,continuedself-education and auxiliary personnel(Donny Hamilton ibid).

Age is another line of difference between history and archaeology. In this case history as a discipline is older than archaeology. History can be best referred from the ancient Greek historians like Herodotus (484-425), Thucydides, andXenophon.Other ancient scholars were fromItaly including Livy and St. Augustus .But archaeology as a discipline begun officially during the 19^thcentury. The earliest known archaeologists are Thomas Jefferson, the third president of US and Pompeii in Italy.Jefferson was the 1^st scientist to identify the mound builders as native Americans at Monticello,Virginia 1781.Currently his home is used as the historical building,crabbed document or government archive .He did an excavation solely using smoking pipes and copper ornaments used by North American mound builders.Pompeii excavation in Italy was one of the earliest too.In 1765 of the HuecadeTantallue on the coast of Peru,a mound was excavated and an offering  was discovered in a hollow and the mounds stratigraphy was well described. According to Colin Reinfrew and Paul Bahn,it was until the middle of the 19^th century that the discipline of archaeology became truly established. The process is said not to have been easy but a French customs inspector called Jacques Boucher de perthes(1788-1868) working in the gravel quarries of the Somme River got sound evidence. In1841 he published the convincing evidence for the association there as human artifacts (of chipped stone) what we would currently call ‘’hand axes’’or‘’bifaces’’ and the bones of extinct animals. He argued that this indicated human existence for a long time before the biblical flood. However his views did not win acceptance until in 1859.In this year two leading British scholars, John Evans and Joseph Prestwich visited him in France and returned persuaded of the validity of his findings (Colin Reinfrew&PaulBahn.2008:23).

Relationship to other fields of study. Unlike history,archaeology, is engulfed with the so called multiple relationship or connection.Apart from historyitself, it is also associated with anthropology, ethnology,sociology, geology,and zoology.This is what results to the six (6) archaeological themes which include historical archaeology,pre-historicarchaeology, environmentalarchaeology, classicalarchaeology, industrialarchaeology, and underwater archaeology. As per Jan Vansina,at time history and archaeology are mutually exclusive.For example in Andrew Roberts book “History of Zambia” its archaeological chapters tell about stone tools and ceramics while the following historical chapters deal with ethnic groups,government ,and trade(Jan Vansina p.1995:3).Therefore in order to make good use of archaeological evidence for historical reconstruction, scholars are advised to first fully realize its handicaps and strengths. Because of archaeological connections, Ian Hadder,to avoid confusion, provides three essential aspects of an interpretive approach in archaeology.Firstly, A guarded objectivity of the past needs to be retained so that subordinate groups can use the archaeological past to empower their knowledge claims in the present and to differentiate their claims from fringe. Secondly, An internal hermeneutic component needs to be retained in interpretation and thirdly, a reflexive consideration of the production of archaeological engagement with the voicing of other interests(Ian Hadder. 1991:10).

Generally, History and archaeology can be regarded as siblings at some points due to the way they compliment each other. However their differences are not ignorable and therefore archaeology is both a science as well as humanity. It deals with physical evidence including buildings( both ruined and standing), structures such as wells, mines, shaftsand bridges ,objects of household use such as cookery ,bottles,personal effects and try’s pollen as evidenceof past environments and parasites as evidence of human diet and diseases. Archaeology depends much on excavations and every year hundreds of new sites are located .Some are spotted from air or even fromsatellites in space. Others through discovery of artifacts by metal detectors. Quarrying,dredging ,and peat cutting all regularly produce unexpected finds while some of the most important have come about completely by chance(Jim Grant,etal 2008:3).

REFERENCES

Brian M Fagan(1996).The oxford companion to archaeology;Oxford University Press.Newyork.

Charles E.Orse,Jr.Brian&M,Fagan(1995).Historical Archaeology;Harper Collins College Publishers.Nwyork.

Colin Reinfrew& Paul Bahn(2008).Archaeology;Theories,methods and Practice;Midas Printing international Ltd.China.

Donny L Hamilton(1997).Basic methods of conserving underwater archaeological material culture.Texas A & M University.United states.

Jan Hodder(1991).Interpretive Archaeology and its role;American Antiquity vol.5.Society for American Archaeology publisher.United states.

Jan Vansina(1995).History of Africa;University of Wisconsin.Madison.

Jim Grant,SamGorin&Neil Fleming(2008).The archaeology coursebook 3^rdedition;Taylor& Francis library.Newyork.