Explain the stages of the process of an archaeological survey.

                                       

According to Fagan (2003), archaeology, is the scientific study of the human past ancient human behavior from the earliest time right up to the present. As such most archaeology is the part of a much wider discipline anthropology which studies all aspects of humanity ancient and modern.

According to Martha (1980:2), archaeology comprises two words which are “Archaeos” means ancient and “logos” means word discussion or reason. By definition archaeology is the science by which the remain of ancient man can be methodologically and systematically studied to obtain as complete a picture as possible of ancient culture and society and thereby to reconstruct past ways of life. It is a discipline that involves study observation, recording and experiment. Archaeologist study in detail the complete life of culture and their pattern of change in an attempt to delineate the causes and effect of cultural process.

Archaeological Survey, according to Bill (1942), the term archaeological survey has been defined as the situation whereby on or more people walking around an area attempting to find surface artifact that indicates the presence of area of human habitation. If any artifact are sighted their location is marked on the site survey and noted in the survey report.

Generally, archaeological survey is a type of field research by which archaeologist (often landscape archaeologist) search for archaeological site and collects the information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures across a large area. Example typically in access of one hectare and often in excess of many kilometers.

Archaeologist conduct survey to search for a particular archaeological sites or kind of sites, to detect the patterns in the distribution of materials culture over region, to make a generalization or test hypothesis about past culture and to assess the risks that development project will have adverse impacts on archaeological heritage.

There are two types of archaeological survey which are explained as follows;

Surface survey (reconnaissance survey) is the systematic attempt to locate, identify and record the distribution of archaeological site on the ground and against the natural geographical and environmental back ground. (Fargan 1985:192).

Generally surface survey is the preliminary examination of an area to identify major site, assess its archaeological  potential purposely to establish tentative sits distributions for example, it examining  archives and historical accounts, talking to people and acquiring general environmental information.

Another type is Sub-surface survey, is the survey whereby features are often detected with the resistivity of the soil between disturbed and undisturbed areas. Proto magnetometer is used to lacate iron object. Fired clay furnaces and other features (Fargan 1985:191). According to Renfrew (1996:85) explained sub-surface survey as a survey which used to determine what coal beneath the ground, perhaps by digging test pits (usually meter square) to assess a site horizontal extent ultimately by more through exaction.

Generally, Sub-surface survey is the systematic detailed field survey that covers entire areas. The major aim of this kind of survey is to determine the location and distribution of archaeological sites within the survey areas.

Archaeological survey it has got various purpose such as; to locate the site, to establish the site boundaries to completely plot the areas, to sub-divide the site into trenches or a grid for the purpose of excavation, to describe topographical nature of the site and to measure the site. (Joukwsky 1980:66).

According to Fargan (1985:222), archaeological survey have objective to record information on sub-surface features such as wall, buildings and fornication, to collect and record information on artifact to use both categories of data test hypothesis about the age significance and function of the site.

The following are the stages of the process of an archaeological survey;

First, the formulation of topic of study, any archaeological research begins with fundamental decision about problem or areas to be studied. A research problem can be grandiose as determining the origin of agriculture in the South West, a truly enormous project s or as specific as determining data of the second phase in stone hanges construction. The initial decision will identify both the problem and geographical region in which will be investigated. (Fargan 1985:184). In addition to that, research problem or hypothesis be tested through the field are defined in formulation stage. relevant background research that review the history of archaeologist, geological and other studies apartment to the problem support objective. (Hester 1975:22-23).

Second, reconnaissance or to understand the area, methods of understanding individual site includes consultation documentary source and place name evidence, but reconnaissance in circumstance where archaeologist is more free agents. For instance much modern biblical archaeology concern itself with such or over  the near East for hard evidence of the place as well as the people and events describes in the old and new testaments, treated as one possible source of information about near Eastern sites. (Renfrew 1996:68-69). In addition to this place name evidence also lead to actual discovery of new archaeological sites. In South West Ethiopia for example many pre-printed stone tombs have been found thank old names printed on the map  that incorporate local words for “stone” or “tombs”. (Renfrew 1996: 69). Also early maps and old streets name are even more important in helping archaeologist work out the former plans of historic town in England, for example it is possible in the better documented towns to the map many the streets, house, churches and castles back to 12^th Century AD or even early. (Renfrew 1996:69). Also maps are among the most basic tools and sources used by archaeologists, they are used to locate and explore sits and to answer questions about previous use of the land scope. There of particular value in tracking changes through time (settlement shape and location, bounderies, land units, fields and hedges). They can also be used to relate sits to geology and topograph (Jim Grant et al 2008:7). These maps then form a reliable basis on which to decide where it would be most profitable to carry out survey work excavation.

After understanding the area a researcher is required to have permission, for instance on a federal land and foreign countries requires some forms of antiquities laws and customs vary and change often. Example in United State of America it is essential to follow the guidelines of native American Graves protection and repatriation act of 1990 and applicable state law (Hester 2009:23). The purpose of understanding the areas, it helps to define boundaries of field area, it helps to assess the extent to which the surface materials have been covered or removed by geographical process, it helps to understand how easy or difficult to reach and record an area, also helps to understand condition of the area, helps to prepare equipments t be used in survey process(Renfrew 1996:70-74).

Third, the preparation of LOGISTICS or preparation of instruments (materials) to be used in archaeological survey. The stage includes time, costs, staffs and equipments to be used. In time archaeologists determine the time to be used during the excavation according to the nature of the area, for instance to simple excavation area it may take short time while too difficult excavation area it may take long time to finish. In case of costs, archaeologists determine the costs of the area where they conduct a research. For example the use of transportation payments to members, costs of transporting equipments and the like.

In case of staffs or surveying teams are compose of three or preferable four person, the head and two or three other experienced surveyor is director of the operation and must be able to locate with high precision horizontal points or bench marks to which all alter survey work done on the sits will be referenced. He or she is expected to determine the terrain accurately and is also responsible for laying out stakes to mark the site control points and lines around the area of proposed excavation. This person must also cross-reference each of the detailed survey and is responsible for the accuracy of notes. The head surveyor must be sure that the instruments have been checked for accuracy and adjusted if necessary before they are taken into the field, once in the field  he or she must be able to adjust the instruments so that it is level, adjust the eye piece, sight of stadia rod, bringing it into proper focus and finally accurately read it and record it. The head surveyor is also referred to as the rear tape man the instrument man or the note taker as these are generally his or her duties.

One assistance is responsible for the correct vertical positioning of points to be measured, involving equipments  such as surveyors pins, the stadia rod and the range pole, also called the nod man, this person must stand behind the rod, holding it with both hand, making sure it is vertical and taking care that his or her finger do not block the instrument man’s view of the calibrations on the rod while watching the head surveyor (instrument man, rear tape man) for signals. The note keeper is responsible for the proper recording of data in the surveyor’s field notebook. These notations are an important phase of the expedition and must be clear, orderly and accurate. (Joukowsky, M 1980:89-90).

In case of equipments to be used in archaeological survey, there are different instruments which are used in archaeological survey including the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), are a remote sensing device which involve radiating short pulse of high frequency radio waves into ground from antenna. Part of those waves will bounce back from buried objects or boundaries between different deposits, while the rest waves passed through the next interface. A receiving antenna record variation in this return signal. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) it is bases of image when there is something solid beneath the ground like stone wall foundation or brick floors or drains. (Drewett 2011:51).

Another instrument is Auger, this is the instrument used to drill or bore through sub-surface deposits to find depth and consistency of archaeological deposits lying beneath the surface. (Fargan 1985: 207).

Also air craft, aerial photography produced by aircraft give an unrivaled view of the past-sites can be photographed oblically or vertically at different seasons or time of day and from many directions. (Fargan 1985: 202).

Other instruments in Magnetometer, this is essential instrument used to locate buried features and burnt areas, where as magnetic susceptibly locate occupation areas because to enhancement of susceptibly by the use of an area by human. This technique is particularly important where occupation evidence survives only in top soil either insity or having eroded down slope. (Drewett 2011:50).

Also there is Geographical Information System (GIS), this is an instrument which used in archaeological mapping, and GIS designed for collection, storage retrieval analysis and display spatial data. Also GIS incorporate the ability to the ability to carry out the statistical analyzing mapping catchment area and site territorial lacking the surrounding terrain in account. (Renfrew 1996: 83).

Other instruments which are used in archaeological survey includes shovel, test pits, Global Position Systems (GPS), total station, Notebook and Pencil, Pen, Camera.

Fourth, decision marking; under this stage archaeologists decide on the type of survey to be used either surface of sub-surface survey. Surface survey is the systematic attempt to locate, identify and record the distribution of archaeological site on the ground and against the natural geographical and environment background. (Fagan 1985:192). There are two types of surface survey which are systematic way employing either a grid system or a series of equal space traverses or transect. The area to be searched is divided into sector and those samples of them are walked systematically. In this way no part of the area is either under or over represented in the survey. This method makes it easier to broad the location of findings since one’s exact position is always known even greater accuracy can be obtained by subdividing  traverses into unit of fixed length, some of which can then more careful examined.

In a case of unsystematic survey, is the simplest involving walking across each part of the area for example each pored field, scanning the strip of ground along one’s path, collecting or examining the artifacts on the surface and recording their location together with that of any surface features. It is generally felt however that results may be biased and misleading. Walkers have an inherent desire to find materials and therefore tend to concentrate on those areas seen richer than obtaining  a sample representative of the whole area that enable archaeologists to assess the varying distribution of materials of different period of type. (Renfrew 1996:74).

Also there is aerial surface survey; this is the types of survey which use aircraft to take photograph from the air. Photograoh do not themselves reveal site it is photographer and the interpreter who do so by examinination of the terrain and the picture. Those are specialized skill; long experience and keen eye are needed to differentiate archaeological traces from other features such as vehicles trucks, old rivers belts and canoes. Indeed most military intelligent unit during the final year of world war two had archaeologist on their staff as interpreter of air craft. (Renfrew 1996:78-79). Those are the ways of or types of surface survey which might be used during archaeological field.

Another type of archaeological survey is Sub-surface survey. This is the survey type whereby features are often detected with sensitivity survey which measures the differences in electronically resistivity of the soil between disturbed and undisturbed areas. (Fagan1985:191). In additional to that (Renfrew 1996:85) explained subsurface survey as the survey type which is used to determine what real does lie beneath a ground perhaps by digging test pit to assess horizontal extent ultimately by more through excavation.

There are various techniques or methods which are used in conducting Sub-surface survey includes;

Augering, this is drilling technique which you drill using auger. This is a tool used bore through sub-surface deposits lying beneath the surface, this technique had value during excavation but it has obvious disadvantage that may destroy valuable artifacts. Auger was used quite successfully at the Ozethe site Washington to establish the depth of middle deposits.(Fagan 1985:207).

Another technique is geographical technique; this is remote sensing devices which involves either passing energy of various kinds through the soil to read what lie below the surface from the anomalies encountered by energy or measuring the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field. (Renfrew 1996:85). Example of geographical devices is;

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), this involves radiating short pulse of high frequency radio wave into ground from antenna. Part of those waves will bounce back from buried objects or boundaries between different deposits, while the rest waves passed through the next interface. A receiving antenna record variation in this return signal. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) it is bases of image when there is something solid beneath the ground like stone wall foundation or brick floors or drains. (Drewett 2011: 51).

Magnetometer, this is essential instrument used to locate buried features and burnt areas, where as magnetic susceptibly locate occupation areas because to enhancement of susceplibily by the use of an area by human. This technique is particularly important where occupation evidence survives only in top soil either insity or having eroded down slope. (Drewett 2011:50).

Radio wave and electrical impulse, this devices involve send short pulses through the soil and echoes reflect back any change in  the soil encountered, such as filled ditches, graves and wall. The buggy more 10cm to each reading, along parallel tracks IM (3ft) (10ft). reading are led into a computer which produce a series of radiographic slices when integrated these constitute a (3-1) image of what lies beneath the soil. (Renfrew 1996:90).

Another sub-surface technique is resistivity survey, this is technique which involves uses probes to introduce an electrical current into soil, measuring the resistance of the soil to the passage of the current, rocks and minerals conduct electricity mainly because the deposits have moisture containing mineral salts in its solution. A resistance survey meter can be used to measure the variation in the resistance of the ground to measure the variation in the resistance of the ground to an electric current, stone wall or hard pavement obviously retain less downiness than a deep pit filled with soft earth or large ditch that has silted up. These differences can be measured accurately so that disturbed ground, stone wall and other subsurface features can be detected. (Hester 1975:208). In addition to that, not every site can be field walked, but also it can walk through the use of sampling technique.

 Sampling is the process of selecting the samples from entire population, so in archaeology sampling means the process of selecting areas for excavation in the particular archaeological site. Thus the selected samples become representative of the entire of archaeological site, therefore in archaeology sampling or sample used as the methods of collection of data. (Joukowsky 1980). There are various types of archaeological survey sampling includes.

Simple random sample, works like lottery. The numbered units are selected by computer or number table. This is fair as each unit has an equal chance of being selected, but it can lead to clustering and thus miss features.

Stratified sampling, overcomes clustering bias by first dividing the sample universe into sections. For example, if the site has natural zones such as hills, valley and plain then numbers are selected randomly for each zone in proportion to its area.

Systematic sampling, this also overcome clustering by selecting at evenly spaced intervals, for example every third grid or every 10 meters. This ensures a more even selection although it could miss things that are regularly distributed. It usually requires a higher number of samples.

Stratified random sampling, this is probabilistic sampling in which archaeological site is divided into various zones known as strata, then in each stratum unit area is selected for survey and excavation of few strata can be selected to represent other strata this depends on the sample size work force and money that an archaeologist has.

Fifth, Excavation is the principle method of data acquisition in archaeology that involves the systematic digging, recording, analyzing and interpreting the physical remains of the people who lived in an area in order to understand their culture.

Archaeological excavation is very important because it yields the most reliable evidence for the two main kinds of information; archaeologists are interested in human activities at a particular period in the past and changes in those activities from period to period. To achieve these archaeologists ought to study the site in terms of relationships of the materials in space and time. Thus the relationships of the materials horizontally in space and vertically through time are very important. Such a study is facilitated by two principles; the principle of association and the principle of superposition.

Excavation is categorized into two types that is, total excavation and selective excavation. Total excavation involves excavating the whole area, while selective excavation involves the selection of a sample area. The archaeologists can do excavation through different methods that are vertically and horizontally and all these methods can use excavation by layer or excavation by level.

The process of excavation involves the following stages.

Decide the area of excavation, and the types of excavation whether total excavation or selective excavation depending on the nature of area selected. Archaeologist may decide to excavate the whole area or selecting a specific area for digging.

Preparation of logistics, this involves preparing of disciplinary staff team, which can involve at list five (5) people depending on the nature of the area, includes excavator who is a leader of the team work, two people  who are screeners who carry the sieve or screen which is used for sieving obtained materials. Lastly a recorder who is responsible for recording the whole information of excavation process.

Preparation of equipment’s such as trowel for excavation, spirit level for leveling, recording sheets, sieve, plastic bags, dusting pan, tags, Notebook, pencil, pen, tape measure, camera, brush scale, ruler, graph paper, groves and water.

Actual digging, under this process the digging of materials begin by archaeologists set grid using survey instruments (usually a transits, measuring tapes, wooden stakes, strings and squares are marked on the grounds using stakes for each corner and string to connect them, then excavator clear vegetation on the established area. Usually square are measured in meters. One or two meters on a side. Each square has a unique identified number based on its grid coordinative. A map is made of the site on graph paper, the graph squares correspond to the square on the ground. Any artifact, sample or features (such as hearth) that are found in a square are labeled with its grid number and the depth below the ground surface which were discovered. Sometimes when there are distinct layer in the stratigraphy, the layer in which artifact is found is recorded also using shovels, trowel, screener and measuring tapes, archaeologist uncover a site square by square. They move dirt slowly because they do not know what they will be uncovering, and they do not want to destroy something by being in hurry. The locations where artifact is fund are carefully recorded. The excavated dirt is put through mesh screens. Some are trays you shake back and forth so that the dirt fall through and artifact are felt on the screen. Others use water to push the dirt through a series of screens with graduated mesh size.

During excavation numerous maps, drawings and photographs are made, each reference the grid location artifact and various kind of sample for example animal bones, plants remain, pollen or charcoal  are sent to the specialists for analysis especially in the laboratory for more scientific clarification.

Sixth, Interpretation of the materials, after archaeologists sent materials in the laboratory for more analysis then them makes interpretation of the materials which they found in the sits during the excavation process.

Seventh, Back filled, one the excavation is completed the site is usually back filled with the excavated dirt. This excavation procedure is followed regardless of whether archaeologist are doing salvage work before a development of project or doing basic research founded by Universities or foundation. If a development project spurred the excavation, the project would now be authorized to continue,

Eighth, Analysis and report, all the records and artifacts are returned to an office. There all the information is considered as a whole and interpretation of the site and the activities that took place there are made. This is then written up into a report for publication. So that others to know what you have found and your findings can add to understanding of the archaeological records.

Lastly, preservation, the findings from the site of excavation are now sent to be preserved for other use or in order for other to access easily. Those materials which are found during excavation and sent to Museums or archives for the preservations.

Generally the archaeologists discuss their work they do each day, record in their field notes and plan how to confine their work. The excavation stops when the goals in the research proposal have been met, uninhabited, soil is reached the parent rocks to excavate express conditions (whether funds, politics) are too difficult to continue.

Also archaeologist after surveying and excavation  taking place they must be able to do or understand the work of other who do many different types of work during the archaeological process such as historical research writing  research proposal reading , making maps, soil science, creativity record keeping, fitting photography, artifacts study and technical drawing.

REFERENCES

Fagan, B (1985), In the Beginning; An introduction to Archaeology. The Libriar Corporation

Fagan, B (1998), In the Beginning; An Introduction to Archaeology 16^th edition, Foresmand and Company London

Renfrew, C and Bahan, P (1996), Archaeology, Theories, Methods and Practice. RR Domlley and Sons Company, USA

Joukuwsky, M (1980), A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology; Tools and Technique of Field Work for Archaeologist; Engle wood Cliffs; Plantice-Hall

Jim Grant, Sam Gorin and Neil Feming (2008), The Archaeology Course book; An Introduction to Theories Sites, Methods and Skills; Routledge, USA and Canada